pe'el!

Welcome to the first weekly c/conlangs post!

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Conlang of the week

This week's conlang of the week is: Klingon! The constructed language devised for the strict warrior aliens of the same name, Klingon was first heard spoken in 1979. Klingon is one of the first conlangs to be widely recognised in popular culture, with there even being groups of people learning and speaking the language.

What do you think of the language Klingon? Does it succeed at its goals? Do you speak some Klingon? Was it what first got you into the wonderful world of constructed languages? Tell us about your thoughts in the thread!

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Linguistic feature of the week

Keeping in the theme of Klingon, which was designed to sound extremely alien to the audience, the linguistic feature of the week is any feature not existing in a natural, human language.

Klingon was meant to sound extremely alien. This was mostly achieved by picking features and sounds that were exotic to English speakers. The most alien thing I could find in Klingon is the fact that it uses OVS word order, the rarest of all word orders. Some people say Klingon has not really succeeded at being "alien", because pretty much all features it has exist in some human language.

What cool and interesting "alien" features does your conlang have? Or which features do you think are super cool and would you love to see in a conlang one day? Please share it with us in the comments!

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Post of the week

There will be no post of the week this week yet, as all posts so far have been made by us, the moderators. Maybe your post can be here next week?

Happy conlanging everyone and thanks for being apart of the c/conlangs community!

Qapla'!

CONLANGING RESOURCES

If you have any suggestions for resources, feel free to share them in the comments, and try to provide descriptions of your resources too. Make sure to also upvote the ones you find useful!

General Resources

1. The Language Construction Kit by Mark Rosenfelder. Collection of general information and tools to get started with creating constructed languages. A must for any aspiring conlanger! 1.1. LCK Resources. Resources recommended by Mark Rosenfelder.
2. Glossary of Linguistic Terms by the SIL. If you ever come across a linguistic term that you haven't heard of, you can probably find what it means in here!
3. World Atlas of Language Structures (WALS) A large overview of many features of the world's languages.
4. The International Phonetic Alphabet. You don't need to know the IPA to make your own conlang, but it's a great way to refer to the sounds that you might include in your conlang.
5. Conlanging course from the MIT. A free, university level course on creating constructed languages.
6. Wikipedia Linguistics Portal. A nice gateway to lots of linguistics content on Wikipedia.
7. ConWorkShop. A conlanging community and tools website.

Phonology

1. The International Phonetic Alphabet chart.
2. The Index Diachronica. It lists sound changes by family and sound, so if you're evolving your conlang from another, it gives you a good idea on what would feel natural
3. Mark Rosenfelder's Sound Change Applier. An easy to use tool to apply sound changes to lots of words at once.

Grammar

1. List of grammatical cases. (Wikipedia)
2. Tense, aspect and mood. (Wikipedia)

Lexicon/Vocabulary

1. Lexiconga. An easy way to store your own languages' lexicons.
2. 625 Useful Words. A list of 625 useful words to add to your conlang's lexicon.
3. A Conlanger's Thesaurus. A big lexicon of all the words that you could possibly want to have in your conlang, ordered by subjects and connections between words.
4. Swadesh list. A list of words used to compare langauges. (Wikipedia) 3.1. Appendix. List of swadesh lists for many different languages. (and even some conlangs!)
5. Kinship Terminology. One of the easiest ways to introduce non-English flavour to your conlang.

Conlanging on Youtube

• Artifexian
• Babelingua
• Biblaridion
• Connor Quimby
• David Peterson
• jan Misali
• Koallary
• Lichen the Fictioneer
• Nakari Speardane

Other Communities

1. Conworkshop Events Another nice conlanging community.
2. !linguistics@mander.xyz (Kbin link). A community about general linguistics.
3. !linguistics_humor@sh.itjust.works (Kbin link). A community to post memes and funnies about linguistics.
4. !worldbuilding@lemmy.world (Kbin link). A community to discuss all the other interesting facets of worldbuilding.
5. !languagelearning@sopuli.xyz (Kbin link). A community to discuss practical language learning.

This can be both in-universe (like word origins that say something interesting about the society in which the conlang is canonically spoken), out-of-universe (like little hidden references you wouldn't expect people to notice), or even both.

I could mention a million things in my own conlang, but the example that inspired this post was the slang term "3-zo" or "poeezo" /pøːzo/ which basically means "a recurring expense; a person, form, or notice sent for the purpose of extracting this money; or the money so extracted". And this word "3-zo" comes from a clipping of yaPoeezolloeyya /japøːzoʎ.ʎøj.ja/ literally meaning basically "the three animals" — and referring to a set of three institutions that work together to help the rich and hurt the masses.

And this idea of "three animals" taking money from the poor was inspired by the Occitan folk song "Ai vist lo lop", where the description of a wolf, fox, and hare dancing around a tree is commonly taken as a metaphor for the monarchy, nobility, and clergy engaging in various merriment, while the peasants get screwed over. That folk song also describes how the peasants toil year-round to earn "a few coins", only to find that all their money is squandered within a month.

So yeah, my conlang's word for like "rent" and "taxman" and "utility bill" and "Netflix subscription" is ultimately in reference to an Occitan folk song about dancing woodland creatures.

Astorí!

Welcome to the fourth no longer-weekly c/conlangs post!

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As you might be able to tell, as the initial hype for the community has slowed down, we've also started getting behind on the weekly posts. Sorry for that. We'll hope to be able to maintain a somewhat less ambitious bi-weekly schedule. But please keep posting your conlang things here - every post matters (to us)!

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Conlangs of the Week

The conlangs of the week are the Ancient Language and Dwarvish from Christopher Paolini's Inheritance Cycle (aka Eragon and the following books). Both these languages feature frequently in Paolini's setting and are essential to the worldbuilding and story of the setting. On the other hand, they have often been criticised for their lack of originality and lack of real rules or vocabulary. Instead, there are just lists of translated words or phrases, not even with an explanation on how to pronounce them. (Though it seems that Paolini has actually done some more leg-work to establish the languages more broadly since the books were released.)

What do you think about this method of conlanging? Would you consider relexes of English (or other irl languages) "proper" conlangs? Are relexes okay as naming languages? Or do you think that the concept of relexes are just gatekeeping?

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Linguistic feature of the week

Less of a linguistic feature and more of a conlang sub-category, our subject of discussion this week are naming languages. Naming languages are conlangs made with only limited grammar and a limited vocabulary, usually just about enough to fill in a map or generate some names - often for a literary setting.

Do you use naming languages? At what point do you consider a conlang having passed the stage of "naming language"?

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Post of the week

No posts this week, so no post of the week ;p

Happy conlanging everyone and thank you for joining us on c/conlangs!

Esterní!

toki!

Welcome to the third weekly c/conlangs post!

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First of all sorry for the delay between the last post and this one, I have been pretty busy last week so I kind of just… forgot. Sorry!

Also, if you have suggestions for a conlang and linguistic feature of the week, please send them to me! I only know so many, so I’m always happy to learn about more, so I can include them in these posts!

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Conlang of the week

This week's conlang of the week is: toki pona! This language was made by linguist Sonja Lang, at first to see how having an extremely small vocabulary would influence the way speakers view things. But the language has quickly grown to have a large community, and even lots of speakers (for a conlang) due to it’s cute nature and ease of learning.

What do you think of toki pona? Do you speak it? Do you think it changes the way speakers will look at things? Tell us about your thoughts in the thread!

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Linguistic feature of the week

This week’s linguistic feature is more of a linguistic curiosity. Keeping with the theme of toki pona, we are looking at how your conlangs might influence the way its speakers think and act!

When German and French speakers were asked to imagine a key and describe its characteristics, they had vastly different answers. People speculate this is because of the grammatical gender that both languages have, one having a key be masculine, the other feminine.

And in toki pona, because you only have very little words to describe things it often forces speakers to break things down to the core of what they want to say, which might actually help them get their point across better too!

In what way might the features of your conlang influence its speakers? Or what things within a language do you think would influence the way people think the most? Please share it with us in the comments!

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Post of the week

This week the post of the week is this great post by @Erika3sis@hexbear.com about how people seperate words in speech! Go check it out! https://hexbear.net/post/3003566

Happy conlanging everyone and thanks for being apart of the c/conlangs community!

o musi a!

In most languages it's easy to tell where one word ends and another begins in writing, assuming that one has spacing or interpuncts or perhaps one uses some sort of logography à la Chinese or mixed script à la Japanese. But what about in speech? People will generally not make any sort of clear stop from one word to the next, in fact people will often use reduced pronunciations when they speak.

And this is why it's important to think about the methods that speakers of a language can use to separate words from each other. The process of identifying word boundaries in speech is called speech segmentation, and this process utilizes things like phonotactics and allophony, prefixes and suffixes, syntax, set or stock phrases, common contractions and reduced forms, intonation and pauses, stress and pitch accent, and simply trying to figure out the most logical interpretation of what one has just heard from the knowledge that one already has. Surely among other methods, with multiple methods working simultaneously as redundancies.

So the way I like to test this is just by writing out a sentence, and then marking down what the telltale signs are of where one word ends and another begins. I have attached a diagram of this, and I'd find it interesting to see similar charts of your own languages, or otherwise hear about the methods that your languages use.

When I say "by sound" I am assuming that you're all developing spoken languages as opposed to signed languages, but if there is anyone here who is developing a signed language, I would love to hear more about how segmentation works in such a language.

Sellamat! Kam leitte yu?

Welcome to the second weekly c/conlangs post!

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Conlang of the Week

The conlang of the week is Sambahsa. Created as an international auxilliary language (IAL) by the linguist Olivier Simon, it was first revealed to the public in 2007. As an IAL, it recognises that a universally "easy" learning experience is near impossible to achieve and therefore tries to concentrate on basing its systems on Indo-European languages, which are of course widely spread. On the other hand, a large amount of vocabulary comes from other language families.

What do you think about Sambahsa? Does it meet its goals? Have you heard of Sambahsa before? Do you think it can succeed as an IAL? Why or why not? Share your thoughts in the thread!

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Linguistic feature of the week

Keeping with Sambahsa's Indo-European theme, we want to look at Indo-European features in conlangs. While some parts of the conlanging community shun unique Indo-European features because they feel it lets on too much of the conlanger's (expected) natlang background, some people have wholeheartedly embraced some Indo-European features in their conlangs or are even trying to build their own, such as the ever-popular romlangs.

Do you use Indo-European features in your conlang(s)? Did you add them on purpose or were they indeed your own background sneaking in through the backdoor? What IE features do you find easiest to omit from conlangs, or hardest to avoid? What's your favourite IE feature to use in a conlang? Share your thoughts and ideas in the comments!

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Post of the week

The first post of the week here on c/conlangs goes to Erika3sis [she/her, xe/xem]@hexbear.net! Congratulations! She made a great post on what she likes best about conlanging. You can check it out here: Post of the week (I'd like to also use this opportunity to shout out Kalvo@lemm.ee's post on their conlang, Koiwak).

Happy conlanging everyone and thank you for joining us on c/conlangs!

Chao!

The types of words that might get one's speech stereotyped as "lazy" or "disfluent" or "uneducated" or whatever else if used excessively or in too formal a setting, but which in truth are vital for fluency and listening comprehension.

I dunno, this is just an impression because I don't interact much with the broader conlang community, but I feel like these words often end up being sort of overlooked by many conlangers. I certainly overlooked them for a long time myself. But to me these words make a language feel that much more alive, you know, that different people talk in different ways with different registers.

Do any of you have any interesting thoughts or experiences with these types of words? How are they handled in your own conlangs?

I'll start myself: I've been quite interested in Esperanto recently, and I am thinking of starting to actually learn the language. Esperanto is just really interesting to me, because of its history and size, compared to other conlangs. I don't believe it will become the universal world language, like once was dreamed. And I do think esperanto has quite a few shortcomings when it comes to being an international auxilliary language. The reason I want to learn it is more just for that history and culture.

Introduction

Hi all, today I wanna present you my creation Ylmunusian. I've been working on it since 2013, when my previous large conlang died in the fires of a fried external harddrive. That said, back when I started with Ylmunusian my knowledge of conlanging and of where to find resources was... limited, let's say. So looking back now I'm fully aware that Ylmunusian is sorely lacking in some regards. At the same time, I wouldn't call it "bad" either. So yeah, if you wanna comment that certain things are not realistic or anything... knock yourself out but I'm well aware. Still, I'm proud of Ylmunusian, especially because of the scale as well as associated worldbuilding, and still work on it, mostly the vocabulary and translations. The grammar, from my point of view, is mostly "finished". That said, any feedback is still welcome and I will answer any questions below in the comments as quickly as I can get to it. If there's sufficient interest I can also share links to my online dictionary and a grammar doc (though be warned, that is unfinished!)

Some info: Ylmunusian is the native language of about 12 million people living on a fictional archipelago in the North Atlantic, south of Greenland and west of Ireland, which forms the nation of Ylmunus. The original natives spoke a language isolate that very little is known about and left no written records. This is my justification for some a priori vocabulary and the large amount of a priori grammar. Next, Finno-Ugric settlers arrived, took over the islands and absorbed the natives. This explains that the majority of vocabulary and some grammar is from Estonian, which I started learning in 2013. During the Viking age, some Viking settlement happened in Ylmunus, from whence come some words into the language but mostly place names. Since the Vikings were a massive problem for the Hansa at a time when the rest of Scandinavia had christianised, the Teutonic order launched a crusade against the islands around the year 1200, conquering and christianising the islands. This brought a ton of German and some Low German vocabulary to the language, as well as some Germanic grammar elements. A revolution and successive independence war starting in 1666 brought Ylmunus independence and a large-scale return to its native religion. That said, the ties to German-speaking areas were still strong and more modern German words came to the language. At the same time, the language has since then adopted many more modern and scientific words from the usual pan-European plethora of languages, including Latin, Ancient Greek, Italian, French and English.

Due to the history, the writing system is mostly based on German and although there have been some reforms, it still clings to some historic spellings.

Phonology & Orthography | | Bilabial | Labiodental | Dental | Alveolar | Postalveolar | Palatal | Velar | Uvular | Glottal | | -------- | -------- | -------- | -------- | -------- | -------- | -------- | -------- | -------- | -------- | | Nasal | m [m] | | | n [n] | | nh [ɲ] | (n [ŋ]) | | | | Plosive | p [p] b [b] | | | t [t] d [d] | | | k [k] g [g] | | [ʔ] | | Affricate | | | | c [ts] | tş [tʃ] | | | | | | Fricative | | f [f] v [v] | ð [θ] ţ [ð] | s [s] z, (s) [z] | ş [ʃ] q [ʒ] | hh, h [ç] | | | h [h] | | Approximant | | | | | | j [j] | | | | | Trill | | | | rr, ( r ) [r] | | | | r [ʀ] | | | Lat. approx. | | | | l [l] | | | | | |

Furthermore, there's <x>, which is pronounced as [ks].

| | Front | Central | Back | | -------- | -------- | -------- | -------- | | Close | í [i:] ý [y:] | | ú [u:] | | Near-close | i [ɪ] y [ʏ] | | u [ʊ] | | Close-mid | e [e] ō [ø:] | | ó [o:] | | Mid | | e [ə] | | | Open-mid | õ [œ] | | o [ɔ] | | Open | a [a] á [a:] | |

The diphthongs are: <aí> [aɪ], <ă> [aʊ], <eí> [aɪ], <ej> [eɪ], <éo> [ɔɪ], <oí> [ɔɪ], <óu> [œɪ], <ŏ> [ɔʊ], <uí> [ʊɪ], <yí> [ʏɪ].

Sentence Structure

Sentence structure in Ylmunusian is very important, since it is necessary to determine the subject and object of a sentence (see more in nouns I guess). A noun phrase has the order preposition-article (which can be ommitted)-adjective-noun.

The general sentence structure is S-V-O, though it gets a bit more funky once more objects are introduced. The secondary object(s) (O2) can either be added behind the primary object (O1) to get S-V-O1-O2, however the secondary object(s) can also be added between the subject and the verb, so S-O2-V-O1.

Min sóut kólissema sõbraka. I go-1S school-ILL friend-COM

or

Min sõbraka sóut kólissema. I friend-COM go-1S school-ILL both: "I go to school with a friend"

Questions have their own sentence structure yet again. Importantly, questions are required to start with a question marker (Q) or particle, which can also require a certain answer marker/particle and/or case to be used in the answer. I won't list all question markers here as there are 31 of them. The sentence structure of the question is then Q-V-S-O1-O2.

Kellema sóut min sõbraka? Where-to go-1S I friend-COM "Where am I going with a friend?"

Nouns

Ylmunusian nouns inflect for number and case. There is no grammatical gender distinction, though some nouns come in pairs of male and female, such as sõbra "male friend" vs. sõbru "female friend" or korr "male dog" vs. koerraja "she-dog".

-> Number

Nouns generally have a singular and plural form. The plural is formed by adding the suffix -(a)rt to the noun's nominative. A limited number of nouns that is likely to occur in pairs (hands, eyes, animals, etc.) can also form a dual by adding -(a)ja to the noun's nominative. | | vowel ending | consonant ending | | -------- | -------- | -------- | | Singular | maja "house" | kess "hand" | | Dual | ∅ | kessaja "two hands/a pair of hands" | | Plural | majart "houses" | kessart "hands" |

-> Cases

Nouns inflect for one of 12 cases. The nominative is unmodified. Ten cases form regularly and one case, the partitive, forms irregularly.

The regular cases form by suffixation to a noun's grammatical form, a highly irregular form of the noun that has no use on its own. It will always end in a vowel to ease the use of the case suffixes. Ylmunusian dictionaries will list the grammatical form after the nominative, usually as "kess, kessi" (nominative, grammatical) and as "maja, - " for grammatical forms that are identical to the nominative. | Case | Meaning | Suffix | Examples | | -------- | -------- | -------- | -------- | | Nominative | both unmod. subject or object | -∅ | maja "house", kess "hand" | | Genitive | possession or relation | -st | majast, kessist | | Inessive | inside or nearby | -m | majam, kessim | | Exteriossive (yes I made that up) | outside or nearby | -n | majan, kessin | | Illative | into or towards | -ma | majama, kessima | | Elative | out of or away from | -ne | majane, kessine | | Comitative | with | -ka | majaka, kessika | | Instrumental | using, utilising | -ð | majað, kessið | | Abessive | without | -t | majat, kessit | | Terminative | until (temporal and local) | -ny | majany, kessiny | | Motivative | because of, due to, in order to | -sso | majasso, kessisso |

Since dual forms already end on vowels, their grammatical form is identical to the nominative form. The grammatical form of the plural is formed by adding the suffix -u to the plural suffix -(a)rt, e.g. majartust and kessartust.

--> Partitive Case

The partitive case is formed differently and thus traditionally not regarded as a case in its own right in Ylmunusian. It is used on nouns that would be in the nominative but are the object of a negated verb or a quantity (number, measurement). The partitive is formed by adding a suffix to the nominative based on the nominative's ending: | Nominative ending on | Partitive Suffix | Example | | -------- | -------- | -------- | | -e, -i, -õ | -de | sárede "island" | | -ă, -ŏ | -t | sdăt "traffic jam" | | long vowels [-á, -é, -í, -ó, -ō, -ú, -ý] & -ð, -h, -hh | -d | agód "pencil, quill" | | any other vowel | -te | majate "house" | | -c, -f, -nh, -q, -ş, -z | -ete | talfete "winter" | | -d, -t | -∅ | fysst "river" | | -j | -i | lillji "flower" | | -r | -ite | jarite "lake" | | any other consonant | -ute | uxute "door" |

-> Articles

The use of articles in Ylmunusian is strictly optional. If they are used, it is usually to emphasise the accompanying noun or in order to strictly distinguish between the direct and the indirect noun. Articles precede the noun they belong to and potentially an accompanying adjective. There is no distinction made for number in the articles. The direct article is mu, while the indirect article is kvá. Kvá can additionally mean any as well as a.

-> Pronouns

Unlike for regular nouns, pronouns have a different form when they are used as an object. This form is identical to the grammatical form, which means that other cases can be formed in a regular manner. The exception to that is the genitive, which has its entirely unique form, that is also used as the possessive pronoun. As in verb conjugation, the dual and plural forms of the pronouns have completely merged. | | Nominative Subject | Nominative Object & Grammatical Form | Genitive & Possessive Pronoun | | -------- | -------- | -------- | -------- | | 1SG | min | minu | myja | | 2SG | sin | sinu | syja | | 3SG | tin | tinu | tyja | | 1DU/PL | ej | eja | yja | | 2DU/PL | en | enna | nyja | | 3DU/PL | evad | ea | vajad |

Adjectives & Adverbs

Adjectives and adverbs are arguably the easiert part of Ylmunusian. They do not in any way adapt to the noun/verb they modify. Adjectives precede the noun, while adverbs follow after the verb (though in some lyrical context they may precede it). Any adjective can be used as an adverb without requiring further modification.

While most common adjectives exist as their own word, any noun can, if necessary, be turned into an adjective through addition of the suffix -ile or -le. If the noun ends on a vowel, this will commonly swallow that final vowel in favour of the suffix's i.

Verbs too can be turned into adjectives, roughly serving the function of English's past participle. To do so, one simply removes the infinitive ending from the infinitive, leaving the verb stem. Example: lõppamar "to finish" -> lõppam "finished" -> lõppam koho "finished task".

Comparatives are formed by adding the suffix -(a)n to the adjective, the superlative by adding the suffix -(u)v. E.g. starki "strong" -> starkin "stronger" -> starkiv "strongest" and ilus "beautiful" -> ilusan "more beautiful" -> ilusuv "most beautiful".

Verbs

Verbs are terribly complex, so I will be glossing over a lot of things for the sake of keeping this post concise.

Regular verbs fall into one of 19 conjugational categories that are easily distinguishable by their infinitive endings, though there are two groups ending on -ar/-ár and four groups ending on -on/-ón (though there are no verbs where this conjugation would distinguish meaning). Importantly, dual and plural conjugation has entirely merged. Two examples: | Infinitive | kúli "to listen" | armastún "to love, to like, to enjoy" | | -------- | -------- | -------- | | Category | i-conjugation | un-conjugation | | 1SG | kúlik | armasta | | 2SG | kúligi | armastað | | 3SG | kúlu | armaste | | 1DU/PL | kúlijo | armastú | | 2DU/PL | kúligo | armastuð | | 3DU/PL | kúlo | armasti |

Furthermore, there are three irregular verbs: sinha "to be", ynda "to have", and sóutam "to go, to move towards". Sóutam is used for any sort of purposeful movement and uses adverbs like "by foot", "by car", or "quickly" to get more precise English verbs like "to walk", "to drive" or "to run". | Infinitive | Sinha "to be" | Ynda "to have" | Sóutam "to go, to move towards" | | -------- | -------- | -------- | -------- | | 1SG | sinhu | ynna | sóut | | 2SG | erja | ytta | sóud | | 3SG | erjatta | ykka | sóuð | | 1DU/PL | sinhă | ygla | sóutma | | 2DU/PL | sinhéo | ygma | sóudma | | 3DU/PL | sŏs | ygva | sóuðma |

-> Past Tenses

There are four past tenses that very much mimick the Germanic way of mingling tense and perfective aspect. There are the preterite, simple perfect, formal perfect and pluperfect tenses. The simple perfect and formal perfect are functionally identical but the simple perfect is preferred in colloquial and spoken language while the formal perfect is preferred in formal language and near mandatory in written language.

The preterite is a non-perfective past tense, denoting an action that has commenced in the past tense but is unfinished or unfinishable. It is formed by adding the suffix -(i)ssar to the verb's infinitive, e.g. sinha "to be" -> sinhassar "was".

The simple perfect and formal perfect are a perfective past tense, denoting an action that has been finished in the past. The simple perfect is formed by adding the suffix -(i)mnoan to the verb's infinitive, e.g. sinha "to be" -> sinhamnoan "has been". To form the formal perfect, it is necessary to remove the infinitive ending of the verb, leaving the stem, and then adding a new conjugational suffix. | | Suffix | Example | | -------- | -------- | -------- | | Infinitive | / | kúli "to listen" | | Stem | / | kúl | | 1SG | -ah | kúlah | | 2SG | -eh | kúleh | | 3SG | -ag | kúlag | | 1DU/PL | -ahk | kúlahk | | 2DU/PL | -ehk | kúlehk | | 3DU/PL | -egyk | kúlegyk |

The irregular verbs have both an irregular infinitive as well as an irregular conjugation for the formal past tense. The irregular formal past tense infinitive is important since it is necessary to use it in a formal past tense sentence where the irregular verb is the secondary verb, e.g. "had wanted to be". | Present Infinitive | sinha "to be" | ynda "to have" | sóutam "to go, to move towards" | | -------- | -------- | -------- | -------- | | Formal Past Infinitive | sinna | yxka | sóusse | | 1SG | sinnah | yxkah | sóusseah | | 2SG | sinneh | yxkeh | sóusseh | | 3SG | sinnag | yxkag | sóusseag | | 1DU/PL | sinnahk | yxkahk | sóusseahk | | 2DU/PL | sinnehk | yxkehk | sóussehk | | 3DU/PL | sinnagyk | yxkagyk | sóussegyk |

The pluperfect tense functions much as in English (where it's usually called past perfect), it denotes an event further in the past from a perspective already in the past. It used the irregular verb ynda as an auxilliary followed by the present tense conjugation of the actual verb. And yes, that means that when the actual verb is already ynda, there is a repetition. Examples: min ynna kúlik "I had heard" or min ynna ynna "I have had".

-> Future Tenses

There are three future tense: the near future tense, the far future tense, and the plufuture tense (yes, my own name creation once again).

The near future tense is used to express events that will happen soon and are thus very probable. It uses the irregular verb sinha as an auxilliary, followed by the infinitive of the relevant verb.

The far future tense is used to express events that will happen not so soon and are thus to an extent uncertain. It uses the regularly conjugated auxilliary verrom [om-conjugation], which has no further meaning and does not exist on its own. It is followed by the relevant verb's infinitive. | Infinitive | kúli "to listen" | | -------- | -------- | | 1SG | verra kúli | | 2SG | verroro kúli | | 3SG | verroni kúli | | 1DU/PL | verram kúli | | 2DU/PL | verrom kúli | | 3DU/PL | verron kúli |

The plufuture tense mimicks the pluperfect tense. It is used to denote an event further in the future from a perspective already in the future, e.g. Min sinhu sóutam markama, sóut ynda klínikkuma. "I will go to the supermarket, (afterwards I) will go to the hospital." The plufuture is formed by regularly conjugating the relevant verb and adding the infinitive form of ynda behind it.

-> Negation

Negation uses a negation particle in front of or surrounding the verb. A negated verb is not conjugated but uses only the verb stem. The irregular verbs ynda and sóutam use the verb stems from the formal perfect tense while sinha uses the entirely irregular stem ole. There are a number of negation particles that can be used. Those that come in two parts surround the negated verb.

| Negation Particle | Meaning | Example | | -------- | -------- | -------- | | ej | not | Maja ej ole ilus. "The house is not beautiful." | | ejjam | nowhere, not in this place | Maja ejjam ole. "The house is not here." | | ej mitte | not anymore | Maja ej ole mitte ilus. "The house is not beautiful anymore." | | ej mitteeía | never again | Maja ej ole mitteeía ilus. "The house will never again be beautiful." | | ej arrón | nobody, not this person | Ej yxka arrón majate. "Nobody has a house." | | ej sykki | not yet | Maja ej ole sykki ilus. "The house is not beautiful yet." | | ejaja | never | Maja ejaja ole ilus. "The house never was beautiful." |

-> Passive & Mood

There are multiple strategies to form the passive voice as well as various moods but often an infix is used. In those cases, the infix is inserted between the verb's stem and its conjugational suffix.

For the sake of making this post not even longer, I'll go through them even more rapid fire.

Passive voice: infixes using -is, -si or -isi. Can be used on the present, preterite, formal past and near future tense.

Inferential mood: used to talk about an event that is currently taking place elsewhere according to second-hand information but where the speaker currently has no possibility to verify said information, e.g. "(she said that) there's an accident." Infixes using -in, -ni or -ini. Can be used on the present, preterite and formal perfect tenses.

Optative mood: used to express a wish that is not necessarily impossible or unrealistic to achieve, e.g. "To win the lottery just once!" or even "Long live the king!" Forms using sinna, the formal past infinitive of sinha + the conjugated present tense form of the verb. Can only be used with the present tense.

Conditional mood: used to describe an action that is currently unlikely due to outside factors, e.g. "we could listen to music if we had a radio" or "we could go swimming if it stopped raining". When using it in the formal past tense, that slightly changes the meaning to something that would have been possible but did not come to pass, so "we could have listened to music if we would have had a radio" or "we could have gone swimming if it had stopped raining". The conditional forms using the infinitive form of sóusse + the conjugated form of the relevant verb + the infinitive of the relevant verb.

Subjunctive mood: used to describe an impossible factor, e.g. "we could make it if I could fly". Infixes using -xi or -ix. Can only be used on the present tense.

Dubitative mood: used to express disbelief over something stated beforehand, e.g. "He said he's already on his way?" Forms using the auxilliary verb allas [as-conjugation], which has no meaning outside the dubitative + the infinitive of the relevant verb. Can be applied to the present and near future tense.

Imperative mood: used to give orders or commands or state requests. Formed by removing the infinitive suffix of the verb, leaving the stem. May be applied to the second person singular, first person dual/plural and second person dual/plural of the present tense.

Prepositions

Despite the extensive case system there are still numerous prepositions, in part to further specify the broad meaning of the cases. A preposition will trigger the use of a specific case. Some common prepositions are: | Preposition | Meaning | Case used | Example | | -------- | -------- | -------- | -------- | | lébi | away from, apart from | exteriossive | Maja erjatta lébi linnan. "The house is (a bit) away from the town." | | upp | on top of | exteriossive | Maja erjatta upp maggin. "The house is on top of the mountain." | | õndrõ | opposite of, across from (figuratively: in front of an institution) | exteriossive | Maja erjatta õndrõ maggin. "The house is across from the mountain." | | naðd | behind | exteriossive | Maja erjatta naðd linnan. "The house is behind the town." | | õndér | next to | exteriossive | Maja erjatta õndér kólissen. "The house is next to the school." | | syppla | above | exteriossive | Byró erjatta syppla markan. "The office is above the store." | | unna | under, below | exteriossive | Mart erjatta unna byrón. "The store is below the office." | | kó | in front of | exteriossive | Maja erjatta kó kólissen. "The house is in front of the school." | | anh | on (attached to) | inessive | Bild erjatta anh sejnam. "The picture is on the wall." | | seas | in between (local) | inessive | Kól erjatta seas majartum. "The school is in between the houses." | | săsoz (formal), săz (colloquial) | in between (temporal) | inessive | Kól erjatta săsoz/săz ahta ja sesstej kellastajam. "School is between 8am and 4pm." | | õndrið | through | illative | Min sóut õndrið kólissema. "I walk through the school." | | mōda | along | illative | Min sóut mōda sejnama. "I walk along the wall." | | kó | before (temporal) | illative | Min vjáma tinu kó ahta kellastajama. "I require it before 8am." | | kunni | after (temporal) | elative | Tin erjatta kunni kólissene. "It's after school." | | rundá | around sth. | elative | Linn erjatta rundá maggine. "The town is around the mountain." | | alta | against, into | terminative | Tin sóuð alta sejnany. "He walks into the wall." | | yle | for (temporal) | terminative | Kól erjatta yle ahta tallemininy. "School is for eight hours." | | ţo | like (comparison) | terminative | ...ţo majany. "...like a house." | | nýn | for lack of, for want of (sth. tangible) | instrumental | Nýn céogið "for lack of a tool" | | fõr | for | nominative | Fõr sinu "for you" | | ném | for lack of, for want of (sth. intangible) | motivative | Ném móutesso "for want of an idea" |

Vocabulary

Like I already said, the majority of Ylmunusian's vocabulary comes from Estonian, with a large chunk also from German and Low German and smaller bits that are a priori, Nordic, and from the influential languages of the modern era (English, French, Latin, Greek).

Numbers in Ylmunusian are base 10, and currently go up to 999,999,999.

My new dictionary on lexiconga.com, which I started compiling things from various old Word documents into a while ago, currently has a total of 2395 entries. 1529 nouns, 411 adjectives, 330 verbs, 48 particles, 9 exclamations, and 10 unclassified. That said, I know I still have some old documents to go through that have vocabulary that needs adding to the dictionary.#